Written by: Lise Thorsen and Vanessa Lolomari
In this day and age, we have yet to tackle societies’ lack of understanding of the specific nature of women’s oppression. The destructive nature of power and the methods in which it is abused by patriarchal hegemony means that women become susceptible to forms of gender-based violence, including but not limited to intimate partner violence (IPV).
Intimate partner violence is a “serious global public health problem and a grave human rights violation,” (Sardinha et al., 2022), with WHO (2021) indicating that 1 in 3 women worldwide has been “subjected to either physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or non-partner sexual violence in their lifetime.” Most considerably, research has highlighted higher rates of intimate partner violence amongst developing, non-western countries, with central sub-Saharan Africa having a lifetime IPV prevalence estimate at 44% and the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) having a lifetime IPV prevalence estimate at 31%. This is in stark contrast to high-income, developed regions such as North America with an IPV prevalence estimate at 25%, and Western Europe with an IPV estimate at 20% (Sardinha et al., 2022).
From a cultural perspective, it has been cited that IPV is somewhat “expected” in Middle Eastern societies, with most societies in the region retaining “rigid gender stratification systems” (Granlund, 2014). Cultural and social stigma is thereby associated with reporting IPV (Moshtagh et al. 2021). This “cultural norm” in the MENA region may be characterised by institutionalised gender inequality as a result of legal and political systems grounded in religious texts. The result is a lack of female political and economic participation, discriminatory legal codes, and legal impunity for violence against women and girls (Elghossain et al., 2019). Jordan is notable amongst the MENA countries classified as a part of the “patriarchal belt.” Despite “Jordan’s continuous commitment to human rights and gender equity through ratifying international conventions, providing equal opportunities and developing programs related to women’s empowerment, gender gaps still exist in different socio-economic spheres of the Jordanian society.” Further, the status quo of male authority and power is still remnant in Jordanian society (Daoud, 2018). These gender gaps are notably heightened in the refugee sphere of Jordanian society.
Refugee women in camp spaces are both suffering from living in precarious conditions, and from physical, sexual or emotional abuse. The women present in the camps, being commonly engaged in early marriage, evidently increases their exposure to IPV. Surrounding children become raised in a hostile environment, in which a cycle of violence and abuse become the norm. Without health insurance, the probability of consulting a psychologist is limited due to the poor socioeconomic status of the participants and the expenses needed for such consultation. Coping mechanisms range from approaching God in a search of peace and mental sanity, to searching for counselling help. Yet instances arise in which victims fail to report the abuse because of fear of retaliation and having next to no power to incite change within the family structure, especially in camp spaces. Following a Gramscian avenue of thought, these difficulties are enhanced as women become more submissive and controlled by a male-oriented society.
Applying a sociological approach to gender relations, gender relations are “strongly influenced by contexts and therefore also the changing contexts of coexistence” (Krause et al, 2015). Forced displacement impacts this socialisation process needed to develop gender relations, and thus the opportunity for women to break gender norms when forcibly displaced is limited. Since the development of refugee camps by the UNHCR in 1980, they have become a “prevailing form of shelter structures for refugees” (Krause et al, 2015). Nonetheless, for female refugees, this shelter structure is impeded by physical violence within camp spaces.
If one applies Marxist-feminist thought, we observe that in camp spaces, women are found to preoccupy positions where they no longer have control over their destiny. “Refugee camps and settlements constitute a post-conflict environment in which changes in gender relations are particularly manifested” (Krause et al, 2015). These changes include the restriction and the inability of women to change the situation they have been placed in. The symptom is an engulfing cycle of IPV. Thus, the relevancy of analysing IPV in camp spaces stems from the spaces’ role in reinforcing traditional gender relations and the subsequent patriarchal society present in the MENA region.
Sources:
Daoud, N. (2018). Debating the Role of Patriarchy in the Incidence of Gender-based Violence in Jordan – Systematic Review of the Literature. 8th International Conference on Languages, Education, Humanities and Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.17758/EIRAI1.F0318402
Krause, S., Williams, H., Onyango, M.A. et al. Reproductive health services for Syrian refugees in Zaatri Camp and Irbid City, Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan: an evaluation of the Minimum Initial Services Package. Confl Health 9 (Suppl 1), S4 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-1505-9-S1-S4
Sardinha, L., Maheu-Giroux, M., Stöckl, H., Meyer, S. R., & García-Moreno, C. (2022). Global, regional, and national prevalence estimates of physical or sexual, or both, intimate partner violence against women in 2018. The Lancet, 399(10327), 803–813. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(21)02664-7
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